A history of modern social movements in the Middle East: the rise of constitutionalism in the 19th century and its collapse in World War I; the growth of mass-based nationalist, Islamist, communist and Arab socialist movements from the 1920s to the early 1960s; and the turn toward violence and Islam in Middle Eastern politics since 1960, with a focus on the Palestine Liberation Organization, Islamists in Egypt, and the Iranian Revolution.
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